The book of Deuteronomy is commonly viewed as a mere “second stating of the law,” which is a definition that comes from the name in the Greek Old Testament (Smith 475). Smith indicated that “Scholars have noted a similarity in the structure of Deuteronomy and the pattern which is observable in vassal [the subordinate nation] treaties from the ancient Near East (480). The book does bear most of the same structural features of the suzerain (the sovereign nation) treaty pattern (Coffman 43). This similarity shows the relationship between Yahweh (God’s covenant name) and Israel as being deeper than that of a master imposing his legal code upon a nation; He desired a covenant with them.
Yahweh established His covenant with the nation of Israel in the book of Deuteronomy after the pattern of ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties to emphasize the relational, historical, and authoritative character of His covenant with them. The similarities to Hittite suzerainty treaties is seen in the usage of such structural features as: (1) a preamble, (2) a historical prologue, (3) the stipulations the vassal must follow, (4) instructions concerning the storage of the covenant document and the requirements for regular public reading of its text, (5) the invocation of witnesses to the ratification of the document, and (6) blessings and curses which would be carried out upon the vassal nation. The use of these features by both Yahweh and surrounding Hittite nations will be examined below.
I. Preamble (Deut. 1:1-5)
Suzerain treaties normally begin with a formal identification of the speaker—typically the king of the conquering nation who indicated his lordship and would be demanding the allegiance of the vassal (Kline, Treaty 50). The treaty between the Hittite suzerain king Mursilis and the vassal king of Amurru, Duppi-Tessub begins with this declaration: “These are the words of the Sun Mursilis, the great king, the king of the land of Hatti, the valiant, the favorite of the Storm-god, the son of Suppiluliumas, the great king” (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”). The covenant document recorded in Deuteronomy instead “identifies the speaker as Moses…as the earthly, mediatorial representative of Yahweh, the heavenly Suzerain and ultimate Lord of this covenant: “These are the words which Moses spoke to all Israel across the Jordan in the wilderness…Yahweh our God spoke to us at Horeb, saying…” (Deut. 1:1, 6) [All Scripture quotations are from the Legacy Standard Bible unless otherwise noted.] The similarities between these covenantal preambles is clear: Deuteronomy follows the pattern of suzerainty treaties by identifying the speaker (Moses) and the Lord of the covenant (Yahweh).
II. Historical Prologue (Deut. 1:6-4:49)
The features of the historical prologue in a suzerain treaty include historical grounds justifying the reign of the suzerain lord, a retelling of the events which would have indicated what the lord had done for the vassal—thus instilling a sense of gratitude, and ways in which the vassal had expressed loyalty to the suzerain (Kline, Treaty 52). The Mursilis treaty begins with such a historical account:
Aziras was the grandfather of you, Duppi-Tessub. He rebelled against my father, but submitted again to my father. When the kings of Nuhassi land and the kings of Kinza rebelled against my father, Aziras did not rebel. As he was bound by treaty, he remained bound by treaty. As my father fought against his enemies, in the same manner fought Aziras. Aziras remained loyal toward my father [as his overlord] and did not incite my father’s anger. My father was loyal toward Aziras and his country; he did not undertake any unjust action against him or incite his or his country’s anger in any way…When your father died, in accordance with your father’s word I did not drop you. Since your father had mentioned to me your name with great praise, I sought after you. To be sure, you were sick and ailing, but although you were ailing, I, the Sun, put you in the place of your father and took your brothers (and) sisters and the Amurru land in oath for you. (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”).
The Deuteronomic covenant includes a historical prologue that begins with Yahweh’s command for the Israelites to set out from Horeb (Mt. Sinai) after the giving of the law and completion of the construction of the tabernacle (Num. 9:15-16; 10:11-13, 17): “Yahweh our God spoke to us at Horeb, saying, ‘You have stayed long enough at this mountain. Turn and set out…’” (Deut. 1:6-7a). Moses’ address recounts instances of Yahweh’s guidance, protection, preservation, and deliverance of the Israelite people. This account is meant to remind the people of this holy vassal nation of the sovereignty, authority, and right to rule that Yahweh had demonstrated. Israel was reminded of all the reasons they should remain loyal to their suzerain—the Lord.
III. Stipulations (Deut. 5:1-26:19)
Suzerain lords would typically include long sections in their treaties which included stipulations and regulations required of the vassal. Such sections “customarily began with the fundamental and general demand for the vassal’s absolute allegiance to the suzerain and then proceeded to various specific requirements” (Kline, Treaty 62).
Demand for Allegiance (Deut. 5:1-11:32)
In the opening paragraph of the Mursilis treaty, sole allegiance to the Hittite king is demanded: “Do not turn your eyes to anyone else! Your fathers presented tribute to Egypt; you [shall not do that!]” (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”). The nature of the suzerain treaty most often entailed full allegiance to the king—vassals could not honor or serve any other. Yahweh demands the same, reiterating the first word of the Decalogue: “You shall have no other gods before Me” (Deut. 5:7). Later He demands the sole allegiance of the Israelites, saying, “You shall fear Yahweh your God, and Him you shall serve, and by His name you shall swear” (Deut. 6:13). The vassal may not seek another lord or demonstrate loyalty in any way to any other power.
Various Specific Requirements (Deut. 12-26)
Mursilis continues with his specific stipulations, namely regulating the Amurru nation’s military alliance with the Hittites and their dealing with foreigners. Duppi-Tessub was meant to “extend military help” to the Hittite nation and treat Hittite forces fairly when receiving their aid in battle (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”). Their actions toward foreigners were meant to glorify the name of the “king of the Hatti,” Mursilis. They were also to ask the king before taking any bounty from a conquered nation, or they would risk breaking their oath (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”). Yahweh gave, in a much longer (21 chapters) series of stipulations, numerous repetitions of the law He gave to Moses on Mt. Sinai. These include regulations regarding consecration (6), stipulations for the Canaanite conquest (7), the law regarding manna (8), a warning concerning the broken tablets (9:1-10:11), a renewed call to commitment (10:12-11:32), and numerous other commandments (Kline, Treaty 62-79).
IV. Instructions Concerning Document Storage and Public Reading (Deut. 31: 9-11)
Most Hittite treaties would have stipulations for the placement and storage of the two copies of the treaty—one for the vassal and one for the suzerain. Each party would store their copy in the sanctuary of their god or goddess. Kline attests that this is the case in another treaty by the father of Mursilis:
For example, the treaty made by Suppiluliumas with Mattiwaza states: “A duplicate of this tablet has been deposited before the Sun-goddess of Arinna…. In the Mitanni land (a duplicate) has been deposited before Tessub…. At regular intervals shall they read it in the presence of the king of the Mitanni land and in the presence of the sons of the Hurri country.” Deposit of the treaty before the gods was expressive of their role as witnesses and avengers of the oath. Even the vassal’s gods were thereby enlisted in the foreign service of the suzerain. (Kline, Two Tables).
The two tablets of the Law of Moses were commanded to be placed in the ark of the covenant after its construction (Ex. 25:16). Kline believes that these two tablets, carried down from the mountain by Moses were, in fact, duplicate copies of the law, because this was the standard procedure in the establishment of these covenants (Treaty 19). Perhaps, because Yahweh is spirit and—unlike typical Hittite suzerain kings—had no physical temple, He indicated that both copies be placed in the ark within the tabernacle as the meeting place between Himself and the High Priest of Israel. A copy for each party served as a reminder of the covenant. Whether the tablets were duplicates or not, the covenant document of Deuteronomy still indicated their placement and dictated the frequency of its public reading when the following is recorded: “Then Moses wrote this law and gave it to the priests… ‘At the end of every seven years… you shall read this law in front of all Israel’” (Deut. 31:9–11).
V. Invocation of Witnesses (Deut. 30:19; 32:1)
A fifth aspect of suzerainty treaties was the invocation of witnesses (typically divine) to the ratification of the covenant. The treaty of Mursilis includes a long list of “storm-gods,” patron-gods, and ultimately, “heaven and earth.” “The Sun-god of Heaven, the Sun-goddess of Arinna… the mountains, the rivers, the sea, heaven and earth—let these be witnesses to this treaty and oath” (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”). It is noteworthy that the only witnesses invoked by Yahweh for the Deuteronomic covenant are heaven and earth; as Yahweh is the only true God, He calls only upon His creation as witness to His covenant, saying, “I call heaven and earth to witness against you today…” (Deut. 30:19), and “Give ear, O heavens, and let me speak; And let the earth hear the words of my mouth” (Deut 32:1).
VI. Blessings and Curses (Deut. 28)
The final consistent feature among suzerain treaties is the pronouncement of blessings and curses. The blessings given were to be fulfilled with the vassal’s faithful keeping of the suzerain’s stipulations. The curses would be dealt to the vassal who violated the stipulations, thus disregarding the oath and dishonoring the suzerain king. Those of Mursilis’ treaty with Duppi-Tessub were simple and concise:
The words of the treaty and the oath that are inscribed on this tablet – should Duppi-Tessub not honour these words of the treaty and the oath, may these gods of the oath destroy Duppi-Tessub together with his person, his wife, his son, his grandson, his house, his land and together with everything that he owns.
But if Duppi-Tessub honours these words of the treaty and the oath that are inscribed on this tablet, may these gods of the oath protect him together with his person, his wife, his son, his grandson, his house (and) his country. (“Hittite Suzerainty Treaties”).
The Deuteronomic covenant required that the blessings (28:1-14) be read from mount Gerizim in Canaan, while the curses (28:15-68) were to be read from mount Ebal as the people of Israel stood between. After the forty-year wilderness wandering (punishment for the people’s refusal to enter the land initially), “Moses’ emphasis falls heavily on the curses” (Kline 124). The blessings begin with, “And it will be that if you diligently listen to the voice of Yahweh your God… Yahweh your God will set you high above all the nations of the earth” (Deut 28:1), and the curses with, “But it will be that if you do not listen to the voice of Yahweh your God… all these curses will come upon you and overtake you.” (Deut 28:15). Ultimately, a loyal nation will attempt to abide by the stipulations or face severe punishment from their lord.
Conclusion
It is clear, as Kline affirms, that “Deuteronomy is a covenant renewal document which in its total structure exhibits the classic legal form of the suzerainty treaties of the Mosaic age” (28). This intentional choice by Yahweh to engage with His chosen people in this covenant as their sovereign lord bears significance to the ways in which He has always interacted with mankind. He affirms Himself as the one, true God who is worthy of praise, fear, and loyalty. Christ is, in fact, “the head of the body, the church; He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in everything He might be preeminent” (Col. 1:18). He desires that His people remember the things He has done for them in the past—how He has delivered, redeemed, restored, and saved them. The things that happened to the spiritual ancestors of the Christian have “happened to them as an example, and they were written down for our instruction…” (1 Cor. 10:11). He gives stipulations that He expects His people to follow when He says, “If you love Me, you will keep My commandments” (John 14:15). He has always expected His people to store His word in their hearts (Ps. 119:11), and He desires His Scripture to regularly be read publicly (1 Tim. 4:13). He has again invoked witnesses to His covenant with His people when He says, “And they [those of His kingdom] overcame [the accuser] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony…” (Rev. 12:11). He gives blessings to His children who remain in Christ (Eph. 1:3) and curses, which are the “wages of sin” (Rom. 6:23).
Yahweh was a God of covenant to the Israelites, and He remains a God of covenant to the church Christ established with the shedding of His blood—an ultimate covenant that upholds Yahweh as sovereign King, expects obedient allegiance of His people, and provides protection, aid, and blessings to those who keep His statutes.
Works Cited
“Examples of Hittite Suzerainty Treaties.” Julian’s Bible Study Resources, Julian Spriggs, https://www.julianspriggs.co.uk/pages/HittiteTreaty. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.
Coffman, James Burton. Commentary on Deuteronomy: The Fifth Book of Moses. Abilene Christian University Press, 1988.
Kline, Meredith G. “The Two Tables of the Covenant.” Westminster Theological Journal, vol. 22, 1960, pp. 133–146. Meredith G. Kline Resource Site, https://meredithkline.com/files/articles/Kline-TwoTables-WTJ.html. Accessed 15 Jan. 2026.
—. Treaty of the Great King: The Covenant Structure of Deuteronomy: Studies and Commentary. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1963.
Smith, James E. The Pentateuch. 2nd ed., College Press Publishing Company, 2023.
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